Massive amounts of water discovered in pre-stellar cloud

            Water is a ubiquitous substance in the universe, not only appearing as a liquid on Earth but also frozen ice on distant planets, comets, and in the depths of interstellar space.  How much water is present during the formation of star systems, however, is a question left unanswered due to challenges of measuring vapor content in regions of energetic, often violent star birth.  However, by directing their observations toward a much calmer, nebulous area of star formation, a team lead by Professor Paola Caselli of the University of Leeds has recently determined the quantity of water to be on the order of 2,000 times the volume of Earth’s oceans.

            Caselli’s team studied a cloud, dubbed Lynds 1544 in the constellation Taurus, which is a pre-stellar core, or a collection of gas and dust on the verge of collapsing into an infant star.  Using the Herschel Space Observatory, a powerful telescope orbiting the earth, Caselli and her team were able to directly observe water vapor to determine its combined mass.  Their results indicate that there is far more water in early star systems than previously expected, a significant finding which helps shape our understanding of juvenile solar systems.

            “I am passionate about understanding our origins, which is why I have been studying for many years dark clouds, where stars and planets form,” said Prof. Caselli of the University of Leeds in West Yorkshire, England.  “These particular clouds are the ideal objects where to focus our attention if we want to unveil the initial conditions of the whole process of star and planet formation.”

            Unlike young star systems which are subject to solar winds, stellar jets, and other astounding displays of energy, Lynds 1544 is a relatively peaceful gas cloud with the potential to collapse into a Sun-like star.  Already, the drift of the water vapor as observed by the Hershel Observatory indicates that the cloud is gradually undergoing gravitational collapse, in which material is slowly flowing toward the center where a star is likely to be born.

            While the water in pre-stellar cores is typically frozen in ice, which makes it hard to detect, the water content in L1544 is excited by passing cosmic rays, or bands of energetic particles which, when absorbed by hydrogen molecules, can help evaporate ice crystals.  In this case the water is made observable in the form of energized vapor.  “This is an important result because it is the first time that we have been able to measure water vapor in a pre-stellar core,” Caselli commented.  “We now know the initial reservoir, or budget of water, at the dawn of a new solar-type system.”

Water is a crucial ingredient in the formation and preservation of life as we know it on Earth.  Therefore, knowing how much water is present during the formation of stars and planets is key to understanding the processes which made life possible in our solar system.  The team’s next step is to perform similar observations on other nebulous clouds in the galaxy to study how different environments affect the chemistry of water, as understanding these dynamics may unveil clues as to the origins of our own solar system or even the planet Earth itself.

“I only hope that people will wonder a little bit more about our wonderful Universe,” said Caselli, “and how lucky we are to be here.”

Fungus-fighting plants may help treat infections and diseases

            While fungal infections can pose serious health concerns, and in some even cases certain cancers, recent research into edible plant-based products may help boost the effectiveness of antifungal medications in thwarting these contagions.  In a study issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), natural compounds known as benzo analogs were found to reduce the ability of certain fungi to defend themselves against medicinal agents, reducing the overall dosage necessary to combat these pathogens.

            “The mission of our research unit is to reduce or eliminate mycotoxin contamination of agricultural commodities, focusing on tree nuts like almonds, pistachios, walnuts, and figs,” said Dr. Jong Heon Kim of the Agricultural Research Service (ARS).  “We focus on the development of environmentally compatible methods and technology.  Therefore, natural compounds in edible plants could be good sources for doing our mission.”

            Since 2004, Jong, alongside Dr. Bruce C. Campbell, now retired, has been researching a means of fighting infectious fungi which can affect both agricultural crops as well as people.  For instance, Aspergillus, a versatile fungus, comes in several different forms which can infect crops like corn, cotton, and different nuts, and can initiate severe allergic reactions and other complications if ingested by humans.  The compounds which Jong and his team are researching would not cure these maladies, but would aid in lowering a fungus’s ability to withstand medical treatment, hopefully preventing or lessening the effect of an infection.

            According to Jong, the application of these plant composites would enhance the effectiveness of existing antifungal agents through a process known as chemosensitization, which debilitates a fungus’s defense mechanisms.  “A chemosensitizing agent does not necessarily require a great degree of antimicrobial potency, itself, to be effective,” Jong explained.  “The chief value, especially by safe natural compounds, is lowering of dosage levels of commercial drugs required for control of pathogens, thus lowering costs and risks of negative side effects.”

            As Jong indicated, lowering the dosage of antifungal medication necessary to fight fungus-induced illnesses would decrease the cost associated with such commercial drugs, as well as reduce the chance of suffering undesirable side effects.  “By identifying more potent natural compounds with corresponding molecular or cellular targets,” he stated, “this approach will further lower dosage levels of commercial drugs required for control of pathogens.”

            Still a matter for continued research, though, is how these fungal-fighting compounds will be utilized or administered.  In some cases they may be paired with existing pesticides to prevent the loss of staple crops to harmful fungi.  And in the case of people, these compounds may be taken orally or applied topically in order to treat infected sights.  At the moment, the concentration at which these natural products are needed to target and disrupt fungal infections is higher than an actual dose of antifungal medicine, and so Jong and his colleagues are hoping to identify compositions with higher potencies to perform the same job for a fraction of the amount.

            Overall, Jong and his team hope that using natural plant products to curb fungal infections will someday be accepted as a therapeutic means of treating these afflictions.  “Chemosensitization could make the use of toxic antifungal drugs or fungicides more attractive as a chemotherapeutic,” Jong commented, “and to overcome development of pathogen resistance to conventional antimicrobial agents.”

Computer models bring researchers one step closer to predicting coronal mass ejections

Every eleven years, the sun goes through a phase referred to as solar maximum where it experiences increased activity in the form of sunspots, solar flares, and occasional violent outbursts known as a coronal mass ejection.  Coronal mass ejections, or CMEs, are enormous clouds of superheated gas, or plasma, which streak through space at millions of miles an hour carrying tremendous amounts of energy.  At present, there are no means of predicting CMEs before they happen, however that is the goal for a team at the University of New Hampshire’s Space Science Center (SSC), which has been conducting research with the aid of powerful computer models.  Through these models they hope to gain a better understanding of how the sun operates in order to recognize the signs of a CME before it occurs.

“These simulations cannot yet predict coronal mass ejections,” said Noé Lugaz, one of the primary researchers at University of New Hampshire, “but it can help us to study them in a self-consistent and physical way.” To perform these simulations, Lugaz and his team rely on super computers to run two integral programs synchronized with each other.  One program, known as the solar coronal code, developed at the University of Michigan and later refined at the University of Hawaii, demonstrates the early stages of a coronal mass ejection.  The other program, named the flux emergence code, simulates magnetic fields in the upper layers of the sun’s atmosphere.  Used in conjunction, these two systems offer a physically accurate model of a CME’s inception.

These models are based on assumed conditions in the sun, including temperature and magnetic field strength, which are believed to play a role in the production of a CME.  These parameters are taken from recorded observations of solar activity in order to best understand the conditions under which a CME may develop.  The goal, however, is to input data from real time observations in order to simulate whether a CME is likely to occur.  “What we have demonstrated so far is a proof of concept using some idealized physical circumstances resembling the sun,” said Ilia Roussev, a researcher at the University of Hawaii and the lead author of a paper recently published in Nature Physics which outlines the results of this computer study.  “Our next goal is to utilize the model described on the paper for case studies of real solar events.”

What is presently understood is that coronal mass ejections occur when part of the sun’s magnetic field erupts from the outermost layer of the surface, or the corona, expelling large amounts of solar material at the same time.  According to Lugaz, the magnetic field gives each ejection an “identity,” ensuring that it remains a cohesive structure as it departs from the sun and into space.

CMEs which are aimed towards the Earth can pose a threat to both life and manmade infrastructures on and in orbit of our planet.  This is because they carry staggering amounts of radiation both in the form of electromagnetic waves and charged particles.  Luckily, CMEs rarely collide with Earth, but even when they do our planet has a natural protective barrier against these stellar furies: the magnetosphere.  This magnetic safe haven regularly diverts charged particles from the sun, otherwise known as solar winds, from striking our planet, protecting the surface from lethal doses of radiation, and on occasion has even proven strong enough to withstand the full brunt of a CME.

Despite Earth’s magnetic field dissipating CMEs before they can unleash their full force, though, there are still many consequences to face following such a massive collision.  “If a once-in-a-century CME hits Earth, we can expect a power failure due to strong currents in the electricity grid.  This would result in a blackout,” explained Lugaz.  “In addition there could be some satellite failure, problems with any space-borne technology.”  Indeed, in 1989, a powerful CME which struck the Earth left such a residual charge in the atmosphere that it short circuited much of Quebec’s power grid, causing a widespread blackout.  And again in 1997, the electrical surge caused by another ejection passing by Earth permanently deactivated one of AT&T’s key satellites.  Due to this threat toward technology and hardware, engineers have been prompted to develop better shielding or establish “safe modes” for their space born equipment to survive the onslaught of a CME.

Another concern researchers take into account when considering the danger CMEs pose is the risk of radiation exposure to transcontinental flights flying above the arctic circle where the magnetic field is weakest.  “CMEs also pose enhanced radiation threat for passengers and crews onboard cross-polar flights,” Roussev noted.  “When major geomagnetic events triggered by CMEs occur, flight crews are advised to reroute their flight to lower latitudes.”  Roussev also remarked that CMEs pose a concern for the safety of astronauts serving on the International Space Station beyond the magnetosphere’s protective cover.

Roussev, Lugaz, and other astronomers are hopeful that advances in computer modeling will allow a better understanding of the origins and nature of coronal mass ejections, and therefore the ability to accurately forecast them in times of high solar activity.  Adequately predicting a CMEs’ formation and trajectory will allow power companies, air traffic control, satellite-based operations and services, and even manned spaceflight, with sufficient time to enact safety procedures.  Much like preparing for an oncoming storm, with enough advanced knowledge these industries would be able to take necessary precautions to protect their assets and their crews.  “What we are building at the moment,” Roussev stated, “is the physical foundation required for space weather forecast.”

While CMEs may sound daunting, for the most part they are harmless albeit dramatic displays of the sun’s raw power, rupturing into space without colliding with the Earth or other astronomical bodies.  It is from this perspective that Roussev and Lugaz work, not yet tracking Earth-bound ejections but rather studying how magnetic fields affect the sun’s corona as a whole.  “The magnetic field is the dominant source of energy in the solar corona,” Roussev elaborated, “and there is no other energy source that can explain the observed properties of these events.”  With time, however, these relationships may be understood, uncovering the secrets behind many stellar phenomenon.

Kepler Mission Makes Out of This World Discovery

The following is a piece I wrote the spring of my super senior year in college as a means of demonstrating my skills a a writer and science analyst while applying to graduate school.  Although I did not conduct any interviews to complete this story, the content is completely based on material gathered from press releases and science articles detailing the Kepler mission.  The prompt for this assignment was to write an article which could speculatively be published, something which I do believe I achieved.  I enjoyed writing this piece immensely, and I hope you enjoy reading it, too.

            Although it may be ages before Earth-born explorers safely travel to other solar systems, their first destination may well be the planet Kepler-22b, which is located 600 light-years away.  Discovered in 2009 as an anomaly in the light from the star Kepler-22, the existence of this planet was validated on December 5, 2011 by NASA’s ongoing Kepler Mission.

Named for sixteenth century astronomer Johannes Kepler, the purpose of NASA’s mission is to locate and study planets which orbit nearby stars in our galaxy.  Launched in March of 2009, the ultimate goal of the Kepler Mission is to find examples of extra-solar planets, or “exoplanets,” which orbit their suns within a specific region known as the Habitable Zone.  At this distance, NASA scientists theorize that planets would receive sufficient heat to contain liquid water, the most essential element for life on Earth, thereby increasing the possibility that they may also support thriving, living ecosystems.  While many planets have met this criteria, Kepler-22b is one of the first proven to be roughly Earth-sized, meaning it could also sustain an atmosphere and environment much like that of our home planet.

            The Kepler Mission’s primary means of detecting planets orbiting other stars is the transit method which measures their luminosity, or the rate that stars puts out light.  Kepler looks for a slight dimming in a star’s luminosity which captures the moment that a planetoid passes across the face of a star, called a transit.  Each transit momentarily blocks some of the star’s output of light, thereby altering the overall brightness seen from Earth.  NASA’s primary tool for recognizing these events is the Kepler spacecraft, a photometric telescope freely orbiting the sun capable of capturing and measuring very slight changes in starlight caused by each transit.  The Kepler probe is permanently fixed on a small patch of the northern sky between the constellations Cygnus, Lyra, and Draco and is capable of simultaneously monitoring nearly 150,000 stars.

            A planet’s presence is confirmed when a catalogued star’s luminosity decreases periodically and by the same amount, indicating a sizeable body in a stable orbit.  Because NASA’s criteria requires three consistent transits before it will confirm the presence of a planet, the first planets Kepler found circled their stars quickly and at extremely close range, heating them unimaginably.  Many of these earliest finds are gas giants much larger than Jupiter, which were calculable based on their immense size blocking large amounts of starlight.  As the Kepler Mission gathered more data it was able to locate a range of planetoids, from small rocky worlds to gaseous monoliths.  Kepler-22b is one of the smallest planets found to date, but it is also one of the most intriguing as the search continues for planets which support life.

            The star Kepler-22 is a G5-type, meaning it is slightly smaller and less bright than our sun.  Additionally, while most stellar objects are partnered in groups of two or more, the Kepler-22 system has no companion star.  The first signal from the planet Kepler-22b was captured only three days after NASA’s mission commenced in 2009, but due to its 290 day orbit it took nearly three years to authenticate it as a planet.  At present, Kepler-22b is the only known planet in its system, and is situated 15% closer to its parent star than the Earth is to ours.  This places Kepler‑22b in the habitable zone, which differs for each star based on its gravity and heat output.  Researchers believe this location may allow Kepler-22b to maintain a relatively temperate climate with an average temperature near 72°F (22°C) if its atmosphere is also similar to Earth’s.

            Although it may initially appear this exoplanet is Earth’s twin, or almost so, the two worlds are still vastly different.  Kepler-22b has a radius 2.4 times larger than the earth’s, and although its mass has not been determined, it could be many times heavier than our own planet.  The more massive an object, the more gravity it has, which could be the difference between Kepler-22b retaining an atmosphere suitable for life or it crushing everything on its surface under tons of air pressure.

The actual composition of Kepler-22b is still under debate, and will take many more observations using both ground and space telescopes to deduce whether it is primarily solid, liquid, gas, or a combination of all three.  Unfortunately the technology of spectroscopy, which can be used to determine the chemical makeup of stars, is not sophisticated enough to measure Kepler-22b’s atmosphere.  Spectroscopy looks at the range of colors reflected from far away objects and specifically studies gaps in this spectrum.  The atoms which make up different elements absorb the energy in light rays, and missing colors indicate the presence of particular elements by the signature pattern they leave.  Gathering this spectral fingerprint, as it were, would reveal the components of the planet’s atmosphere, and most importantly whether it has liquid water.  However, taking a spectral image of a planet 600 light-years away is a major task and easily overwhelmed by the light from its host star.  Hopefully, advancements in telescopic imagery will eventually make this possible.

NASA recently announced the existence of Kepler-22b alongside over 1,000 new planetary candidates from data it collected over the past year, bringing the total number of discoveries by the Kepler Mission to 2,326.  Of these, 207 are Earth-sized planets, 680 are so-called super-Earths at least twice as large as our planet, over 1,000 are similar in size to Neptune, and the remainder are the size of Jupiter or larger.  However, it will take years of research to verify true planets from random anomalies in starlight, companion stars in close proximity transiting each other, or even simple glitches in the data collection.  Kepler-22b is the first officially confirmed planet among the 48 habitable zone candidates currently studied by NASA.  Its size and distance to its star, in relation to the star’s size and brightness, make Kepler-22b the most Earth-like of all planetary bodies discovered by the mission.

One possibility researchers face is that Kepler-22b is not Earth-like at all, but rather a different classification of planet.  The fact that Neptune’s radius is 3.8 times the size of Earth, and it is 17 times as massive, has lead some astronomers to wonder if Kepler-22b is not a solid planetoid at all but instead a miniature gas planet.  However, this concern is based solely on speculation and has yet to be proven or disproven.

Kepler is not the only mission locating exoplanets, especially those which may harbor life.  One of the most notable findings is the star system Gliese 581 which contains several super-Earths, at least two of which rotate in the habitable zone.  Meanwhile, the planet Gliese 370b, rests just within the habitable zone of its own star, and could potentially sustain life if its atmosphere is similar to Earth’s.

Kepler-22b is the latest in an impressive list of destinations astrobiologists are eager to study with the hopes of proving the existence of life elsewhere in our galaxy.  Still, there are many other factors than a planet’s distance from its sun which determine whether it is viable for life, and until these can be demonstrated the question whether there is life on other worlds cannot be answered.  According to the Rare Earth Hypothesis, there are many determining criteria which must be present on a planet or within a solar system for organisms to survive.  For instance, the planet’s sun must provide enough energy while existing long enough for life to evolve; there must be a moon to stabilize the planet’s rotation; a gas giant must be present in the solar system to attract asteroids which could otherwise strike the planet; and the planet must be able to regularly renew its land, water, and atmosphere.  The likelihood all these factors, and more, can be accounted for on any one planet such as Kepler-22b is extremely small, but luckily not impossible given the billions of different stars and planets in our galaxy alone.

Though the Kepler Mission is scheduled to last throughout 2012, team leaders and supporters throughout the scientific community are pushing to extend the operation, claiming that the program has only just begun to accumulate usable data on the sheer expanse of star systems within our galaxy.  Kepler is in constant coordination with numerous scientific teams throughout the world, uniting with ground-based observatories, NASA engineers, university professors and specialists, and even the SETI program, the Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence.  Increasing technologies, like the launch of the James Webb Space Telescope in the next 5-10 years, will refine and increase the ability to observe nearby stars and planets, and may boost the Kepler Mission’s ability to find and classify new planets.  At present, though, our knowledge of Keplter-22b and many other planets is limited, but their existence has already sparked the imagination of scientists, students, artists, and everyday people whose desire to push the limits of space exploration is the fuel needed for future success.